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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
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<ul class="crumbs"><li><a href="../index.html">Home</a></li><li><a href="../services.html">Services</a></li><li><a href="index.html">linguistics</a></li><li><a href="index.html#P">Preliminaries</a></li><li><b>About Sentence Diagrams</b></li></ul></div>
<p class="purpose">Description and examples of the diagrams which this module turns sentences into.</p>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP1" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;1. </b>First, an acknowledgement: the sentence diagrams in this section are generated
automatically by <a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a>. (This means they are always up to date.)
If you are interested in using <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> in some context other than Inform,
<a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a> may be a good starting point.
</p>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP2" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;2. </b>Every example sentence in this section was passed in turn to the &lt;sentence&gt;
nonterminal, and the trees displayed below were the result. For example:
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">linguistics-test: sentence has no primary verb</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) arfle barfle gloop</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'arfle barfle gloop'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) beth is not a sailor</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth is not a sailor'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is not' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE -ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'beth'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary">Sentence (1) here made no sense: there was no verb. It was therefore left as
a single <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">SENTENCE_NT</span></span> node with no children. In all other cases, as in (2),
there are three children: verb, subject phrase, and object phrase.<sup id="fnref:1"><a href="#fn:1" rel="footnote">1</a></sup>
</p>
<p class="commentary">In this tree notation, indentation shows which nodes are children of which
others. The node types, such as <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">SENTENCE_NT</span></span>, are in capitals and all end
in <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">_NT</span></span>. The text leading to the creation of the node then appears in quotes.
After that are "annotations", written in braces.<sup id="fnref:2"><a href="#fn:2" rel="footnote">2</a></sup> In sentence (2), we see:
</p>
<ul class="items"><li>(a) The <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">VERB_NT</span></span> node is annotated with its grammatical form &mdash; it is "to be",
in third person singular, active voice, present tense, and a negative sense &mdash;
and also its semantic meaning &mdash; the equality relationship "is".
</li><li>(b) The second <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> node is annotated with the article used to
introduce it &mdash; the indefinite article, "a", which could be any of masculine,
feminine or neuter, could be either nominative or accusative, but is
certainly singular.
</li></ul>
<ul class="footnotetexts"><li class="footnote" id="fn:1"><p class="inwebfootnote"><sup id="fnref:1"><a href="#fn:1" rel="footnote">1</a></sup> Since "to be" is a copular verb, in sentence (2) we really mean "the
phrase in the object position".
<a href="#fnref:1" title="return to text"> &#x21A9;</a></p></li><li class="footnote" id="fn:2"><p class="inwebfootnote"><sup id="fnref:2"><a href="#fn:2" rel="footnote">2</a></sup> Since the 1850s a variety of tree-diagram schemes for sentence structure
has been proposed: see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_diagram" class="external">Wikipedia</a>.
These tend to be quite large, with many optional features &mdash; no bad thing when
the aim is to explain. But our aim is to process, not to illustrate, and
whereas a typical dependency tree would have nodes for both "not" and "a",
we use annotations instead. We want fairly flat sentence trees with a simple,
predictable shape.
<a href="#fnref:2" title="return to text"> &#x21A9;</a></p></li></ul>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP3" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;3. </b>Using &lt;sentence&gt; alone tends to result in a lot of <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> nodes.
This is unsatisfying, but useful, because sometimes the meaning of a verb
affects how those nodes should be parsed further. The idea is that the user
will traverse the tree and parse the <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> nodes as needed.
Calling the function <a href="2-nns.html#SP16" class="internal">Nouns::recognise</a> on such a node will test to see
if it's a known common or proper noun, and amend it accordingly.
</p>
<p class="commentary">The <a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a> program does this automatically, so from here on,
all examples shown will have that operation done. For example:
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth is not a sailor</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth is not a sailor'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is not' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE -ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary">Here the two <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> nodes have been recognised as usages of a
proper noun, Beth, and a common noun, sailor, respectively, and they are
annotated with their grammatical usages &mdash; in so far as we can tell. These
two nouns do not inflect with case in English, but they are both singular.
</p>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP4" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;4. </b>Clearly the <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> module needs to know some vocabulary in order
to do this, and in the test runs displayed in this section, it is using a
very limited stock of nouns, verbs and prepositions as follows:
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">Anna = feminine proper noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">Beth = feminine proper noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">Charles = masculine proper noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">man = masculine common noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">woman = feminine common noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">person = masculine common noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">sailor = masculine common noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">table = neuter common noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">Ming vase = neuter common noun.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">IS = relationship.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">HAS = relationship.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">CARRIES = relationship.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">KNOWS = relationship.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">COMBINES = special meaning.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">COMBINESUP = special meaning.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">GREETS = special meaning.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">be = copular verb with priority 2.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">have = verb with priority 1.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">carry = verb with priority 3.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">greet = verb with priority 3.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">know = verb with priority 3.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">combine = verb with priority 3.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">-- be -- = IS.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">-- have -- = HAS.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">-- carry -- = CARRIES.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">-- know -- = KNOWS.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">-- be on -- = CARRIES-reversed.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">-- be under -- = CARRIES.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">combine -- with -- = COMBINES.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">combine up -- with -- = COMBINESUP.</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">greet -- = GREETS.</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary">We only know that Beth is feminine-gendered and sailor masculine-gendered<sup id="fnref:3"><a href="#fn:3" rel="footnote">3</a></sup>
because the vocabulary being used by <a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a> says so. It's
important to appreciate that although an English reader might twig that
Beth is a common girl's name, we can't do that.
</p>
<ul class="footnotetexts"><li class="footnote" id="fn:3"><p class="inwebfootnote"><sup id="fnref:3"><a href="#fn:3" rel="footnote">3</a></sup> In the grammatical sense that "she" can refer to Beth and "he" to a
generic identity-unknown sailor. Pronouns in English are a source of real
sensitivity and if <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> were a module to generate text, rather
than recognise it, we would take much more care over this. Our interest
is in grammatical gender, not the assignment of sexes to people.
<a href="#fnref:3" title="return to text"> &#x21A9;</a></p></li></ul>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP5" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;5. </b>So, then, let us start with simple copular sentences &mdash; that is,
sentences involving the verb "to be", which equate two subjects rather
than having a subject act upon an object. This is why one "ought to" say
"The traitor is I" instead of "The traitor is me", although nobody does.
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) anna is a woman</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is a woman'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'woman' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) anna is not charles</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is not charles'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is not' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE -ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'charles' {proper nom/acc m s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP6" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;6. </b>Next, regular sentences, that is, those where the verb is not copular
but instead expresses some relationship between a subject and an object
which play different roles.
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth carries the ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth carries the ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) the sailors carry the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'the sailors carry the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carry' {verb 'carry' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc m p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carry' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) the ming vase is carried by beth</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'the ming vase is carried by beth'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is carried by' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: carried by}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is carried by' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) a woman is on the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a woman is on the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'woman' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary">Each <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span> node expresses that it, and the other term, are
in some non-copular relation to each other. The annotation gives that
relation from the point of view of the node, not from the point of view
of the subject of the sentence. For example, in (4), the subject of the
sentence (woman) is carried by the object (table), but the <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span>
node is for the table, and so the meaning is "carries", not "carried-by".
</p>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP7" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;7. </b>Possessive verbs need careful handling because of the wide range of
meanings they can carry which may not involve ownership as such (cf. French
"j'ai trente ans", or English "I have mumps"). But syntactically they are
just like other non-copular verbs, and we parse them as such.
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth has a ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth has a ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'has' {verb 'have' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'has' {meaning: has-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) sailors have a drink called rum</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'sailors have a drink called rum'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'have' {verb 'have' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {common nom/acc m p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'have' {meaning: has-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'drink' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'rum'</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP8" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;8. </b>An unusual feature of English is its use of subject-verb inversion:
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) on the table is the ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is the ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) on the table is under the ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is under the ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is under' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: under}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is under' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary">It would be easy to auto-fix the inversion in sentence (1), by simply
swapping the "on the table" and "Ming vase" subtrees over, but we want
to preserve the distinction because Inform will make some use of it.
</p>
<p class="commentary">Sentence (2) here is arguably just plain wrong, but we do very occasionally
allow that sort of thing in Inform (for e.g. "east of X is south of Y").
</p>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP9" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;9. </b>Existential sentences, using the defective subject nounphrase "there", are
marked with an additional annotation.
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) there is a table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) some sailors are there</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'some sailors are there'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {indefinite 'some' n/m/f nom/acc p} {common nom/acc m p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) there is a ming vase on the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a ming vase on the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on} {existential}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) a ming vase is on the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a ming vase is on the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary">In sentences (3) and (4) here, the resulting trees are essentially identical
except for the existential annotation.
</p>
<p class="commentary">Note that "there" as an object phrase is also defective, but not considered
existential (it is more likely an anaphora &mdash; "A woman is there" implies a
reference to a location already being discussed, whereas "There is a woman"
does not).
</p>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP10" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;10. </b>Two sorts of adverbs are recognised, for certainty and occurrence, and they
are handled by making additional annotations to the verb node, not by adding
fresh nodes:
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth always carries the ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth always carries the ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {certainty:certain} {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) anna carries the ming vase for the third time</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna carries the ming vase for the third time'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {occurrence: &lt;3 times&gt;}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP11" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;11. </b>We can also support imperative verbs, with "special meanings" which are
not necessarily relational, and do not always lead to <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span>
subtrees. See <a href="3-sm.html" class="internal">Special Meanings</a>.
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) greet beth</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'greet beth'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'greet' {verb 'greet' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve} {special meaning: greets}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) combine the ming vase with the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'combine the ming vase with the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'combine' {verb 'combine' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep2: with} {special meaning: combines}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the table' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the ming vase' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) combine up the ming vase with the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'combine up the ming vase with the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'combine up' {verb 'combine' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: up} {prep2: with} {special meaning: combinesup}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the table' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the ming vase' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP12" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;12. </b>That shows the full range of what happens with verb nodes. Turning back
to noun phrases, we can have serial lists:
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) anna and beth are women</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna and beth are women'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'women' {common nom/acc f p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) anna , beth and charles are sailors</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna , beth and charles are sailors'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'charles' {proper nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {common nom/acc m p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) anna , beth , and charles are sailors</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna , beth , and charles are sailors'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'charles' {proper nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {common nom/acc m p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) anna carries the table and the ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna carries the table and the ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(5) anna is on the table and under the ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is on the table and under the ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'under the ming vase' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary">Note that <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">AND_NT</span></span> nodes always have exactly two children, and that the serial
comma is allowed but not required.
</p>
<p class="commentary"><span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">AND_NT</span></span> in conjunction with <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span> can allow for zeugmas.
Zeugma is sometimes thought to be rare in English and to be basically a comedy
effect, as in the famous Flanders and Swann lyric:
</p>
<blockquote>
<p>She made no reply, up her mind, and a dash for the door.</p>
</blockquote>
<p class="commentary">in which three completely different senses of the same verb are used,
but in which the verb appears only once. It might seem reasonable just to
disallow this. Unfortunately, less extreme zeugmas occur all the time:
</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The red door is west of the Dining Room and east of the Ballroom.</p>
</blockquote>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP13" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;13. </b>Now we introduce pronouns to the mix. These are detected automatically
by <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a>, and exist in nominative and accusative cases in
English. Note the difference in annotations between "them" and "you",
for example.
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) he knows her</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'he knows her'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'knows' {verb 'know' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'he' {third person pronoun m 3p s nom}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'knows' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'her' {third person pronoun f 3p s acc}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) she knows him</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'she knows him'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'knows' {verb 'know' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'she' {third person pronoun f 3p s nom}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'knows' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'him' {third person pronoun m 3p s acc}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) i carry the ming vase</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'i carry the ming vase'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carry' {verb 'carry' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'i' {first person pronoun n/m/f 1p s nom}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carry' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) the sailors know them</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'the sailors know them'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'know' {verb 'know' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc m p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'know' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'them' {third person pronoun n/m/f 3p p acc}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(5) you know us</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'you know us'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'know' {verb 'know' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'you' {second person pronoun n/m/f s/p nom/acc 2p}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'know' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'us' {first person pronoun n/m/f 1p p acc}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(6) anna is here</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is here'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'here' {location pronoun n/m/f s/p nom/acc 3p}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP14" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;14. </b>"Callings" use the special syntax "X called Y", which has to be handled
here in the <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> module so that Y can safely wording which would
otherwise have a structural meaning. ("Called" is to Inform as the backslash
character, making letters literal, is to C.)
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) a sailor called jack silver is on the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a sailor called jack silver is on the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'a sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'jack silver'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) on the table is a sailor called ben gunn</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor called ben gunn'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'ben gunn'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) there is a sailor called captain flint</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a sailor called captain flint'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'captain flint'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) there is a table called the billiards and snooker table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a table called the billiards and snooker table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'billiards and snooker table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(5) there is a table called the billiards table with deep pockets</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a table called the billiards table with deep pocket'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'billiards table with deep pockets' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc}</span>
</pre>
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP15" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>&#167;15. </b>The word "with", often but not always used in conjunction with "kind of":
</p>
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) a sailor with carrying capacity 10 is on the table</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a sailor with carrying capacity 10 is on the table'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 and wealth 12</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 and wealt'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'wealth 12'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 , wealth 12 , and sea count 7</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 , wealth '</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'wealth 12'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'sea count 7'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(5) there is a kind of sailor called an admiral</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a kind of sailor called an admiral'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> KIND_NT'kind of sailor'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'admiral' {indefinite 'an' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(6) an admiral is a kind of sailor</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'an admiral is a kind of sailor'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'admiral' {indefinite 'an' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> KIND_NT'kind of sailor'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">(7) an admiral is a kind of sailor with wealth 50</span>
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'an admiral is a kind of sailor with wealth 50'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'admiral' {indefinite 'an' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> KIND_NT'kind of sailor'</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'wealth 50'</span>
</pre>
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