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<!--Weave of 'About Sentence Diagrams' generated by Inweb-->
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<div class="breadcrumbs">
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<ul class="crumbs"><li><a href="../index.html">Home</a></li><li><a href="../compiler.html">Services</a></li><li><a href="index.html">linguistics</a></li><li><a href="index.html#P">Preliminaries</a></li><li><b>About Sentence Diagrams</b></li></ul></div>
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<p class="purpose">Description and examples of the diagrams which this module turns sentences into.</p>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP1" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§1. </b>First, an acknowledgement: the sentence diagrams in this section are generated
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automatically by <a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a>. (This means they are always up to date.)
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If you are interested in using <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> in some context other than Inform,
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<a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a> may be a good starting point.
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</p>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP2" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§2. </b>Every example sentence in this section was passed in turn to the <sentence>
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nonterminal, and the trees displayed below were the result. For example:
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</p>
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<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
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<span class="plain-syntax">linguistics-test: sentence has no primary verb</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(1) arfle barfle gloop</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'arfle barfle gloop'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(2) beth is not a sailor</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth is not a sailor'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is not' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE -ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'beth'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
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</pre>
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<p class="commentary">Sentence (1) here made no sense: there was no verb. It was therefore left as
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a single <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">SENTENCE_NT</span></span> node with no children. In all other cases, as in (2),
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there are three children: verb, subject phrase, and object phrase.<sup id="fnref:1"><a href="#fn:1" rel="footnote">1</a></sup>
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</p>
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<p class="commentary">In this tree notation, indentation shows which nodes are children of which
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others. The node types, such as <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">SENTENCE_NT</span></span>, are in capitals and all end
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in <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">_NT</span></span>. The text leading to the creation of the node then appears in quotes.
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After that are "annotations", written in braces.<sup id="fnref:2"><a href="#fn:2" rel="footnote">2</a></sup> In sentence (2), we see:
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</p>
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<ul class="items"><li>(a) The <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">VERB_NT</span></span> node is annotated with its grammatical form — it is "to be",
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in third person singular, active voice, present tense, and a negative sense —
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and also its semantic meaning — the equality relationship "is".
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</li><li>(b) The second <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> node is annotated with the article used to
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introduce it — the indefinite article, "a", which could be any of masculine,
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feminine or neuter, could be either nominative or accusative, but is
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certainly singular.
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</li></ul>
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<ul class="footnotetexts"><li class="footnote" id="fn:1"><p class="inwebfootnote"><sup id="fnref:1"><a href="#fn:1" rel="footnote">1</a></sup> Since "to be" is a copular verb, in sentence (2) we really mean "the
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phrase in the object position".
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<a href="#fnref:1" title="return to text"> ↩</a></p></li><li class="footnote" id="fn:2"><p class="inwebfootnote"><sup id="fnref:2"><a href="#fn:2" rel="footnote">2</a></sup> Since the 1850s a variety of tree-diagram schemes for sentence structure
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has been proposed: see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_diagram" class="external">Wikipedia</a>.
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These tend to be quite large, with many optional features — no bad thing when
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the aim is to explain. But our aim is to process, not to illustrate, and
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whereas a typical dependency tree would have nodes for both "not" and "a",
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we use annotations instead. We want fairly flat sentence trees with a simple,
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predictable shape.
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<a href="#fnref:2" title="return to text"> ↩</a></p></li></ul>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP3" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§3. </b>Using <sentence> alone tends to result in a lot of <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> nodes.
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This is unsatisfying, but useful, because sometimes the meaning of a verb
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affects how those nodes should be parsed further. The idea is that the user
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will traverse the tree and parse the <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> nodes as needed.
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Calling the function <a href="2-nns.html#SP16" class="internal">Nouns::recognise</a> on such a node will test to see
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if it's a known common or proper noun, and amend it accordingly.
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</p>
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<p class="commentary">The <a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a> program does this automatically, so from here on,
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all examples shown will have that operation done. For example:
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</p>
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<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
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<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth is not a sailor</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth is not a sailor'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is not' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE -ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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</pre>
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<p class="commentary">Here the two <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">UNPARSED_NOUN_NT</span></span> nodes have been recognised as usages of a
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proper noun, Beth, and a common noun, sailor, respectively, and they are
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annotated with their grammatical usages — in so far as we can tell. These
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two nouns do not inflect with case in English, but they are both singular.
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</p>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP4" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§4. </b>Clearly the <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> module needs to know some vocabulary in order
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to do this, and in the test runs displayed in this section, it is using a
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very limited stock of nouns, verbs and prepositions as follows:
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</p>
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<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
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<span class="plain-syntax">Anna = feminine proper noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">Beth = feminine proper noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">Charles = masculine proper noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">man = masculine common noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">woman = feminine common noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">person = masculine common noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">sailor = masculine common noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">table = neuter common noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">Ming vase = neuter common noun.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">IS = relationship.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">HAS = relationship.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">CARRIES = relationship.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">KNOWS = relationship.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">COMBINES = special meaning.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">COMBINESUP = special meaning.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">GREETS = special meaning.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">be = copular verb with priority 2.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">have = verb with priority 1.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">carry = verb with priority 3.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">greet = verb with priority 3.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">know = verb with priority 3.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">combine = verb with priority 3.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">-- be -- = IS.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">-- have -- = HAS.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">-- carry -- = CARRIES.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">-- know -- = KNOWS.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">-- be on -- = CARRIES-reversed.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">-- be under -- = CARRIES.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">combine -- with -- = COMBINES.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">combine up -- with -- = COMBINESUP.</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">greet -- = GREETS.</span>
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</pre>
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<p class="commentary">We only know that Beth is feminine-gendered and sailor masculine-gendered<sup id="fnref:3"><a href="#fn:3" rel="footnote">3</a></sup>
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because the vocabulary being used by <a href="../linguistics-test/index.html" class="internal">linguistics-test</a> says so. It's
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important to appreciate that although an English reader might twig that
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Beth is a common girl's name, we can't do that.
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</p>
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<ul class="footnotetexts"><li class="footnote" id="fn:3"><p class="inwebfootnote"><sup id="fnref:3"><a href="#fn:3" rel="footnote">3</a></sup> In the grammatical sense that "she" can refer to Beth and "he" to a
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generic identity-unknown sailor. Pronouns in English are a source of real
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sensitivity and if <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> were a module to generate text, rather
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than recognise it, we would take much more care over this. Our interest
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is in grammatical gender, not the assignment of sexes to people.
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<a href="#fnref:3" title="return to text"> ↩</a></p></li></ul>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP5" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§5. </b>So, then, let us start with simple copular sentences — that is,
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sentences involving the verb "to be", which equate two subjects rather
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than having a subject act upon an object. This is why one "ought to" say
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"The traitor is I" instead of "The traitor is me", although nobody does.
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</p>
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<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
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<span class="plain-syntax">(1) anna is a woman</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is a woman'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'woman' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(2) anna is not charles</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is not charles'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is not' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE -ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'charles' {proper nom/acc m s}</span>
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</pre>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP6" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§6. </b>Next, regular sentences, that is, those where the verb is not copular
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but instead expresses some relationship between a subject and an object
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which play different roles.
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</p>
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<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
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<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth carries the ming vase</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth carries the ming vase'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(2) the sailors carry the table</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'the sailors carry the table'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carry' {verb 'carry' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc m p}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carry' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(3) the ming vase is carried by beth</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'the ming vase is carried by beth'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is carried by' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: carried by}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is carried by' {meaning: carries}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(4) a woman is on the table</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a woman is on the table'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'woman' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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</pre>
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<p class="commentary">Each <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span> node expresses that it, and the other term, are
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in some non-copular relation to each other. The annotation gives that
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relation from the point of view of the node, not from the point of view
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of the subject of the sentence. For example, in (4), the subject of the
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sentence (woman) is carried by the object (table), but the <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span>
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node is for the table, and so the meaning is "carries", not "carried-by".
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</p>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP7" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§7. </b>Possessive verbs need careful handling because of the wide range of
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meanings they can carry which may not involve ownership as such (cf. French
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"j'ai trente ans", or English "I have mumps"). But syntactically they are
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just like other non-copular verbs, and we parse them as such.
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</p>
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<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
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<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth has a ming vase</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth has a ming vase'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'has' {verb 'have' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'has' {meaning: has-reversed}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(2) sailors have a drink called rum</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'sailors have a drink called rum'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'have' {verb 'have' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {common nom/acc m p}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'have' {meaning: has-reversed}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'drink' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'rum'</span>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP8" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§8. </b>An unusual feature of English is its use of subject-verb inversion:
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) on the table is the ming vase</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is the ming vase'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) on the table is under the ming vase</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is under the ming vase'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is under' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: under}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is under' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p class="commentary">It would be easy to auto-fix the inversion in sentence (1), by simply
|
|
swapping the "on the table" and "Ming vase" subtrees over, but we want
|
|
to preserve the distinction because Inform will make some use of it.
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<p class="commentary">Sentence (2) here is arguably just plain wrong, but we do very occasionally
|
|
allow that sort of thing in Inform (for e.g. "east of X is south of Y").
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP9" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§9. </b>Existential sentences, using the defective subject nounphrase "there", are
|
|
marked with an additional annotation.
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) there is a table</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a table'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) some sailors are there</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'some sailors are there'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {indefinite 'some' n/m/f nom/acc p} {common nom/acc m p}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) there is a ming vase on the table</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a ming vase on the table'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on} {existential}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is' {meaning: carries}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) a ming vase is on the table</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a ming vase is on the table'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p class="commentary">In sentences (3) and (4) here, the resulting trees are essentially identical
|
|
except for the existential annotation.
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<p class="commentary">Note that "there" as an object phrase is also defective, but not considered
|
|
existential (it is more likely an anaphora — "A woman is there" implies a
|
|
reference to a location already being discussed, whereas "There is a woman"
|
|
does not).
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP10" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§10. </b>Two sorts of adverbs are recognised, for certainty and occurrence, and they
|
|
are handled by making additional annotations to the verb node, not by adding
|
|
fresh nodes:
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) beth always carries the ming vase</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'beth always carries the ming vase'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {certainty:certain} {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) anna carries the ming vase for the third time</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna carries the ming vase for the third time'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {occurrence: <3 times>}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP11" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§11. </b>We can also support imperative verbs, with "special meanings" which are
|
|
not necessarily relational, and do not always lead to <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span>
|
|
subtrees. See <a href="3-sm.html" class="internal">Special Meanings</a>.
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) greet beth</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'greet beth'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'greet' {verb 'greet' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve} {special meaning: greets}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) combine the ming vase with the table</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'combine the ming vase with the table'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'combine' {verb 'combine' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep2: with} {special meaning: combines}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the table' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the ming vase' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) combine up the ming vase with the table</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'combine up the ming vase with the table'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'combine up' {verb 'combine' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: up} {prep2: with} {special meaning: combinesup}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the table' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'the ming vase' {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP12" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§12. </b>That shows the full range of what happens with verb nodes. Turning back
|
|
to noun phrases, we can have serial lists:
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) anna and beth are women</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna and beth are women'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'women' {common nom/acc f p}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) anna , beth and charles are sailors</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna , beth and charles are sailors'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'charles' {proper nom/acc m s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {common nom/acc m p}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) anna , beth , and charles are sailors</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna , beth , and charles are sailors'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'are' {verb 'be' s/p 2p act IS_TENSE +ve + 1p/3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'beth' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'charles' {proper nom/acc m s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {common nom/acc m p}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) anna carries the table and the ming vase</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna carries the table and the ming vase'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carries' {verb 'carry' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carries' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(5) anna is on the table and under the ming vase</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is on the table and under the ming vase'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'under the ming vase' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p class="commentary">Note that <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">AND_NT</span></span> nodes always have exactly two children, and that the serial
|
|
comma is allowed but not required.
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<p class="commentary"><span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">AND_NT</span></span> in conjunction with <span class="extract"><span class="extract-syntax">RELATIONSHIP_NT</span></span> can allow for zeugmas.
|
|
Zeugma is sometimes thought to be rare in English and to be basically a comedy
|
|
effect, as in the famous Flanders and Swann lyric:
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<blockquote>
|
|
<p>She made no reply, up her mind, and a dash for the door.</p>
|
|
</blockquote>
|
|
|
|
<p class="commentary">in which three completely different senses of the same verb are used,
|
|
but in which the verb appears only once. It might seem reasonable just to
|
|
disallow this. Unfortunately, less extreme zeugmas occur all the time:
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<blockquote>
|
|
<p>The red door is west of the Dining Room and east of the Ballroom.</p>
|
|
</blockquote>
|
|
|
|
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP13" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§13. </b>Now we introduce pronouns to the mix. These are detected automatically
|
|
by <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a>, and exist in nominative and accusative cases in
|
|
English. Note the difference in annotations between "them" and "you",
|
|
for example.
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) he knows her</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'he knows her'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'knows' {verb 'know' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'he' {third person pronoun m 3p s nom}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'knows' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'her' {third person pronoun f 3p s acc}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) she knows him</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'she knows him'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'knows' {verb 'know' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'she' {third person pronoun f 3p s nom}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'knows' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'him' {third person pronoun m 3p s acc}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(3) i carry the ming vase</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'i carry the ming vase'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'carry' {verb 'carry' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'i' {first person pronoun n/m/f 1p s nom}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'carry' {meaning: carries-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'ming vase' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(4) the sailors know them</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'the sailors know them'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'know' {verb 'know' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailors' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc m p}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'know' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'them' {third person pronoun n/m/f 3p p acc}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(5) you know us</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'you know us'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'know' {verb 'know' 1p/2p s/p act IS_TENSE +ve + 3p p act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'you' {second person pronoun n/m/f s/p nom/acc 2p}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'know' {meaning: knows-reversed}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'us' {first person pronoun n/m/f 1p p acc}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(6) anna is here</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'anna is here'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPER_NOUN_NT'anna' {proper nom/acc f s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> PRONOUN_NT'here' {location pronoun n/m/f s/p nom/acc 3p}</span>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP14" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§14. </b>"Callings" use the special syntax "X called Y", which has to be handled
|
|
here in the <a href="index.html" class="internal">linguistics</a> module so that Y can safely wording which would
|
|
otherwise have a structural meaning. ("Called" is to Inform as the backslash
|
|
character, making letters literal, is to C.)
|
|
</p>
|
|
|
|
<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(1) a sailor called jack silver is on the table</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a sailor called jack silver is on the table'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'a sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'jack silver'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">(2) on the table is a sailor called ben gunn</span>
|
|
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor called ben gunn'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
|
|
<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'ben gunn'</span>
|
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<span class="plain-syntax">(3) there is a sailor called captain flint</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a sailor called captain flint'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'captain flint'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(4) there is a table called the billiards and snooker table</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a table called the billiards and snooker table'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'billiards and snooker table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(5) there is a table called the billiards table with deep pockets</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a table called the billiards table with deep pocket'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'billiards table with deep pockets' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc}</span>
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</pre>
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<p class="commentary firstcommentary"><a id="SP15" class="paragraph-anchor"></a><b>§15. </b>The word "with", often but not always used in conjunction with "kind of":
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</p>
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<pre class="undisplayed-code all-displayed-code code-font">
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<span class="plain-syntax">(1) on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(2) a sailor with carrying capacity 10 is on the table</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'a sailor with carrying capacity 10 is on the table'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is on' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {prep1: on}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'is on' {meaning: carries}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(3) on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 and wealth 12</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 and wealt'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT'and'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'wealth 12'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(4) on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 , wealth 12 , and sea count 7</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'on the table is a sailor with carrying capacity 10 , wealth '</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> RELATIONSHIP_NT'on the table' {meaning: carries}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'table' {definite 'the' n/m/f s/p nom/acc} {common nom/acc n s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {indefinite 'a' n/m/f nom/acc s} {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'carrying capacity 10'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> AND_NT','</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'wealth 12'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'sea count 7'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(5) there is a kind of sailor called an admiral</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'there is a kind of sailor called an admiral'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve} {existential}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> DEFECTIVE_NOUN_NT'there'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> CALLED_NT'called'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> KIND_NT'kind of sailor'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'admiral' {indefinite 'an' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(6) an admiral is a kind of sailor</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'an admiral is a kind of sailor'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'admiral' {indefinite 'an' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> KIND_NT'kind of sailor'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">(7) an admiral is a kind of sailor with wealth 50</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax">SENTENCE_NT'an admiral is a kind of sailor with wealth 50'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> VERB_NT'is' {verb 'be' 3p s act IS_TENSE +ve}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> UNPARSED_NOUN_NT'admiral' {indefinite 'an' n/m/f nom/acc s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> WITH_NT'with'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> KIND_NT'kind of sailor'</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> COMMON_NOUN_NT'sailor' {common nom/acc m s}</span>
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<span class="plain-syntax"> PROPERTY_LIST_NT'wealth 50'</span>
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</pre>
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